This paper describes threats to making valid causal inferences about pandemic impacts on student learning based on cross-year comparisons of average test scores. The paper uses Spring 2021 test score ...

We know that correlation does not imply causation, but careful analyses of correlations are often our only way to quantify cause and effect in domains ranging from healthcare to education. This ...

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AI & Society, states that algorithmic systems often construct competing but equally valid “model-worlds,” offering empirical support for a philosophical claim that evidence alone cannot uniquely ...